The Apostrophe
25 rules
Apostrophe for Omission and Contractions
Use an apostrophe to show the omission of letters and syllables in contractions and numerical expressions. Standard contractions (isn't, can't, it's), shortened years ('57, '80s), and dialect forms all use apostrophes to mark missing characters.
Apostrophe With Plural of Lowercase Letters
Use an apostrophe and s to show the plural form of uncapitalized letters and uncapitalized abbreviations. This prevents misreading — without the apostrophe, a pluralized lowercase letter could be confused with a word.
Apostrophe With Plural of Unfamiliar Words
Use an apostrophe and s to show the plural form of any word that is unfamiliar or likely to be misread. If the pluralized form is quoted, keep the entire expression inside the quotes. However, words that are common are still made plural by simply adding s or es without an apostrophe (ands, ifs, buts, whys, ins, outs, pros, cons).
Apostrophe With Plural of Numbers and Capitalized Abbreviations
The plurals of numbers and capitalized abbreviations can be written without an apostrophe and s if there is no chance of misreading. When abbreviations are lowercased, use the apostrophe and s. The trend is to omit the apostrophe for numbers and capitalized abbreviations, but some writers still include it.
Apostrophe Before Suffix for Verb Forms
Use an apostrophe before adding a suffix to show that a letter, number, or abbreviation has become a verb form. When a shortened word that ends in c becomes a verb, add k to preserve the hard sound before the suffix. Consult a dictionary to see which words follow which patterns.
Apostrophe for Singular Possessive
Use an apostrophe and s to show possession in most singular nouns. This is the basic possessive rule — the apostrophe and s are added to the end of the singular noun.
Apostrophe for Possessive Nouns Ending in S or Z
When a singular noun ends in s or z, the possessive may be formed by adding an apostrophe and s if an extra s syllable is heard and written in the reporter's notes. If the reporter does not hear the extra s syllable, the singular possessive is made by just adding the apostrophe.
Apostrophe for Plural Possessive
Use an apostrophe after the s in most plural nouns to show possession. The singular possessive and the plural possessive of a word will often sound the same — the court reporter must read the context very carefully for clues as to which form is intended.
Apostrophe for Irregular Plural Possessive
If the plural of the word is made by changing the spelling internally rather than by adding s (women, children, men), form the possessive by adding an apostrophe and s. Use a dictionary for the plural of a word if you do not know it.
Apostrophe or Of Phrase for Possession
There are two acceptable ways for a speaker to express possession: by using an apostrophe and s, or by using an of phrase. An idiomatic double possessive is formed when an apostrophe-s possessive and an of phrase are combined to show one item among several similar items. Not every of phrase is a double possessive — if among cannot be substituted for of, do not use the apostrophe and s.
Apostrophe for Compound Word Possessive
Use an apostrophe and s on the last word of a compound word to show possession. The possessive marker goes on the final element of the compound, regardless of how many words or hyphens it contains.
Apostrophe for Multi-Word Name Possessive
Use an apostrophe and s to show possession at the end of a name or title that is made of several words. Commas are omitted after the title or explanation in the possessive form.
Apostrophe for Inanimate Possession
Use an apostrophe and s to show singular possession of inanimate elements or things. Use s and an apostrophe for plural possession of inanimate elements or things. Some phrases that appear to be possessives are not — when the word after the plural is an adjective rather than a noun, there is no possessive.
Apostrophe in Idiomatic -ce and -ss Expressions
When an idiomatic expression ends in ce or ss, the apostrophe is used without the s (for justice' sake, for appearance' sake, for goodness' sake). If the reporter hears an extra syllable, write what is spoken. Other sake expressions follow the usual possessive rules (for Pete's sake, for heaven's sake).
Apostrophe for Understood Possessive
Use the apostrophe and s for a possessive that is understood but not completed — where the thing possessed is implied rather than stated.
Apostrophe in Organization Names
Check carefully the names and titles of all associations, organizations, and publications when in doubt about the apostrophe. Some titles include it and others do not — there is no shortcut other than looking it up.
Apostrophe for Ambiguous Singular or Plural Possessive
Some possessives defy the label singular or plural. Use a dictionary as often as needed, and if that fails, try to be logical. Different dictionaries may give different preferences.
No Apostrophe With Descriptive Adjectives
Do not use an apostrophe with words or names that are regarded as descriptive adjectives rather than possessives. Proper nouns can also be descriptive adjectives. Consulting the dictionary is the best way to check whether a word is functioning as a possessive or a descriptive adjective.
No Apostrophe With Possessive Pronouns
Do not use an apostrophe with any of the possessive personal pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs, whose. These words are already possessive and never take an apostrophe.
Apostrophe for Indefinite Pronoun Possessive
Use an apostrophe and s for any of the indefinite pronouns when they are in the singular possessive. Use s and an apostrophe for indefinite pronouns in the plural possessive. Common indefinite pronouns include: another, anybody, anyone, everybody, everyone, nobody, no one, one, other, somebody, someone, and their else forms.
Apostrophe for Joint vs. Separate Ownership
When joint ownership is intended, the possessive form is only on the last item. When separate ownership is intended, each item takes the possessive form. The distinction changes the meaning — joint ownership means one shared thing, separate ownership means individual things.
Apostrophe for Possessive Pileup
Use apostrophes as necessary when a speaker creates a possessive pileup — a chain of possessives where each element possesses the next. These constructions are awkward but occur in testimony and must be punctuated correctly.
Pluralizing Proper Names Without Changing the Spelling
When making a proper name plural, do not change the base spelling of the name. If the name ends in s, z, x, soft ch, or sh, add -es to make it plural regardless of pronunciation. When a surname has 'the' in front of it, make the name plural without regard to how it might be pronounced. Never use an apostrophe when all you need is the plain plural form of a proper name.
Hyphen Instead of Apostrophe When Time/Amount Adjective Is Said Without the S
When a direct adjective construction involving time, value, distance, or amount is said with the s, use the apostrophe form (one week's vacation, two weeks' vacation). When the same construction is said without the s, use a hyphen instead and add an article like 'a' in front (a one-week vacation, a two-week vacation). The punctuation is based solely on the presence or absence of the s.
Possessive Form for Noun or Pronoun in Front of a Gerund
Use the possessive form (apostrophe s for singular, s apostrophe for plural) for a noun that appears in front of a gerund (-ing verb form used as a noun). If a pronoun appears in front of the gerund, use the possessive form of the pronoun (his, her, their — no apostrophe since possessive pronouns do not take one).